Digital to Digital

  • Dijital datayı dijital sinyalle temsil etmek.
  • 3 yolu vardır
    • Line coding
    • Block coding
    • Scrambling

Line Coding

Line coding dijital sinyali dijital sinyale çevirme işlemidir.

Signal Element VS. Data Element

  • Data Elementleri taşımak için Signal Elementlerini kullanırız.
  • Data Element bizim verimizdir. Signal Element veriyi gönderiş şeklimizdir.

Data Rate VS. Signal Rate

  • Data rate: 1 saniyede gönedirelen data elementi (bit). Birimi bps. Bit rate de denir
  • Signal rate: 1 saniyede gönderilen sinyal element’i. Birim baud. Pulse rate; modulation rate veya baud rate de denir.
  • Increasing the data rate increases the speed of transmission;
    decreasing the signal rate decreases the bandwidth requirement.

Baseline Wandering

– In decoding a digital signal, the receiver calculates a running average of the received signal power. This average is called the baseline.
-The incoming signal power is evaluated against this baseline to determine the value of the data element.
-A long string of 0s or 1s can cause a drift in the baseline (baseline wandering) and make it difficult for the receiver to decode correctly.
-A good line coding scheme needs to prevent baseline wandering.

DC Components

  • When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while, the spectrum creates very low frequencies.
  • These frequencies around zero, called DC (direct-current) components, present problems for a system that cannot pass low frequencies or a system that uses electrical coupling (via a transformer).
  • We can say that DC component means 0/1 parity that can cause baseline wondering.
  • For example, a telephone line cannot pass frequencies below 200 Hz. Also a long-distance link may use one or more transformers to isolate different parts of the line electrically.
  • For these systems, we need a scheme with no DC component.

Synchronization

  • Alıcı ve vericinin bit intervalleri birbiriyle uyumlu olmalı. Saat hızları farklı olduğunda sinyal yanlış yorumlanabilir.
  • self-synchronizing dijital sinyaller zamanlama bilgisini içinde barındırır. Sinyalin başı sonu ortası bellidir ve buna göre alıcı kendi saati bozuksa resetleyebilir.

Örnek: alıcı ve verici farklı saat hızlarında olduğunda veri yanlış yorumlanır.

Örnek: Alıcının saat hızı, vericinin saat hızından sadece 0.1% hızlıysa

  • How many extra bits per second does the receiver receive if the data rate is 1 kbps?
  • How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?

1 kbps -> 1001 bps instead of 1000bps
1 Mbps -> 1’000’000 bits sent -> 1’001’000 bits received

Line Coding Schemes

Unipolar Schemes
  • Tüm voltaj seviyeleri eksenin üstünde veya altında kalır.
  • Non return to zero (NRZ) – It is unipolar line coding scheme in which positive voltage defines bit 1 and the zero voltage defines bit 0. Signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit thus it is called NRZ. 
Polar Schemes
  • Voltaj seviyeleri eksenin her iki tarafında da bulunur.
Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ)
  1. NRZ-L (NRZ-Level), voltaj seviyesi bitin değerini belirler.
  2. NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert), bir sonraki bit 1 ise değişir; 0 ise düz devam eder. (the change or lack of change in the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit.)

Cons

  • Baseline wandering
  • Synchronization problem
  • DC component problem
Return-to-Zero (RZ)
  • NRZ’lerde temel problem senkronize olamamasıydı. Bunun sebebi ise alıcının sinyalin başlangıcının bitişinin nerede olduğunu anlayamamasıydı. RZ’de bu durum sinyalin ortasında 0 voltaj seviyesine uğrayarak çözülmüş oldu. Böylece alıcı bitin başlangıcını bitişini bilebilir.
  • En temel sıkıntı daha fazla kanal genişliği istemesi.
  • No DC component problem
  • Karmaşıklık. (3 voltaj leveli var)
Biphase: Manchester
  • NRZ-L + RZ => Manchester (bu iki fikrin birleşimiyle oluşmuştur)
  • Bit’in ortasında voltaj leveli değişiyor. Bu da senkronizeyi sağlıyor.
Biphase: Differential Manchester
  • NRZ-I + RZ => Differential Manchester (bu iki fikrin birleşimiyle oluşmuştur)
  • Bir sonraki bit 0 ise bitin başında voltajı değişir; 1 ise düz devam eder.
Bipolar Schemes
  • 3 voltaj seviyesi vardır: pozitif, negatif, sıfır (zero)
  • Bir 0 veya 1 bitini, zero voltaj temsil eder. Geri kalan bit ise pozitif, negatif arasında dalgalanır.
AMI and Pseudoternary
  • Alternate mark inversion (AMI). Sıfır voltaj, 0 bitini temsil eder. pozitif, negatif voltajları ise 1 bitini temsil eder.
  • Pseudoternary ise AMI nin tam zıttıdır. 1 biti zero voltaj temsil eder.
  • AMI uzun mesafe için kullanılır ama senkronize problemi vardır(devamlı 0 gelirse)
  • No DC component
Multilevel Schemes

The goal is to increase the number of bits per baud by encoding a pattern of m data elements into a pattern of n signal elements.

We only have two types of data elements (0s and 1s), which means that a group of m data elements can produce a combination of 2m data patterns.

Remember:

  • If we have L different levels, then we can produce Ln combinations of
    signal patterns.
  • If 2m = Ln, then each data pattern is encoded into one signal pattern.
  • If 2m < Ln, data patterns occupy only a subset of signal patterns.
  • Data encoding is not possible if 2m > Ln because some of the data patterns cannot be encoded.

In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data elements is encoded as a pattern of n signal elements in which 2m ≤ Ln.

These types of coding known as mBnL:

  • m is the length of the binary pattern
  • B means binary data
  • n is the length of the signal pattern
  • L is the number of levels in the signaling.

A letter is often used in place of L:

  • B (binary) for L = 2,
  • T (ternary) for L = 3,
  • Q (quaternary) for L = 4.

Note that the first two letters define the data pattern, and the second two define the signal pattern.

2B1Q Scheme
  • 4 sinyal level; 2 data level
  • m=2, n=1, L=4
8B6T Scheme
  • 8 bitlik datayı temsil etmek için 6 tane 3levellik sinyal elementi kullanır.
  • Bu sistemde 2^8=256 data; 3^6 = 729 sinyal elementi vardır. 729-256=473 aralarındaki fark ise senkronizasyon ve error detection için kullanır.
  • Tüm sinyal desenlerinin ağırlıkalı 0 ve +1 DC değerdir. -1 yoktur.
  • To make the whole stream DC-balanced, the sender keeps track of the weight.
  • If two groups of weight 1 are encountered one after another, the first one is sent as is, while the next one is totally inverted to give a weight of −1.
4D-PAM5 Scheme

four-dimensional five- level pulse amplitude modulation (4D-PAM5)

  • 4 kablo üstünden 5 voltaj leveli iletilir: -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
  • One level, level 0, is used only for forward error detection
  • Gigabit LANs use this technique to send 1-Gbps data over four copper cables that can handle 125 Mbaud.
  • This scheme has a lot of redundancy in the signal pattern because 28 data patterns are matched to 44 = 256 signal patterns.

https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2011/07/ethernet-how-does-it-work/3/

Multitransition Schemes

MLT-3 encoding (Multi-Level Transmit) is a line code (a signaling method used in a telecommunication system for transmission purposes) that uses three voltage levels. An MLT-3 interface emits less electromagnetic interference and requires less bandwidth than most other binary or ternary interfaces that operate at the same bit rate (see PCM for discussion on bandwidth / quantization tradeoffs), such as Manchester code or Alternate Mark Inversion.

Block Coding

  • m bitlik bloğu n bitlik blokla değiştirir. (n>m)
  • Block coding give us redundancy and improve the performance of line coding, in terms of synchronization and error detection

4B/5B

4 bit -> 5bit

In telecommunication, 4B5B is a form of data communications line code. 4B5B maps groups of 4 bits of data onto groups of 5 bits for transmission. These 5-bit words are pre-determined in a dictionary and they are chosen to ensure that there will be sufficient transitions in the line state to produce a self-clocking signal. A collateral effect of the code is that 25% more bits are needed to send the same information.

An alternative to using 4B5B coding is to use a scrambler. Some systems use scramblers in conjunction with 4B5B coding to assure DC balance and improve electromagnetic compatibility.

Depending on the standard or specification of interest, there may be several 5-bit output codes left unused. The presence of any of the unused codes in the data stream can be used as an indication that there is a fault somewhere in the link. Therefore, the unused codes can be used to detect errors in the data stream.

8B/10B

In telecommunications, 8b/10b is a line code that maps 8-bit words to 10-bit symbols to achieve DC balance and bounded disparity, and at the same time provide enough state changes to allow reasonable clock recovery. This means that the difference between the counts of ones and zeros in a string of at least 20 bits is no more than two, and that there are not more than five ones or zeros in a row. This helps to reduce the demand for the lower bandwidth limit of the channel necessary to transfer the signal.

An 8b/10b code can be implemented in various ways with focus on different performance paramenters. One implementation was designed by K. Odaka for the DAT digital audio recorder. Kees Schouhamer Immink designed an 8b/10b code for the DCC audio recorder. The IBM implementation was described in 1983 by Al Widmer and Peter Franaszek.

Scrambling

Uzun 0 dizilerinin önlemek için belirli bir şekilde kural ihlali yaparak 0 dizilerini değiştirmek. Bu süreç block coding’in aksine encoding’le aynı anda tamamlanır.

B8ZS

Genelde Kuzey Amerika’da kullanılır. 0000’0000 yerine 000V’B0VB kullanılır.
V: kural ihlali
B: bipolar

HDB3

Kuzey Amerika dışında kullanılır. 0000 yerine 000V veya B00V kullanılır. Eğer son yerdeğiştirmeden itibaren 0 olmayan pulse sayısı çift ise B00V; tek ise 000V kullanılır örnek:

Analog to Digital

Mikrofon kamera vb cihazlarda üretilmiş analog sinyalleri dijital sinyallere dönüştürebiliriz. 2 teknik bulunmakta:

  • Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
  • Delta Modulation (DM)

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

3 aşamadan oluşur

  1. SAMPLING
  2. QUANTIZATION
  3. ENCODING

Sampling

Belli aralıklarla (Ts) örnekler alınır. Sampling rate veya sampling frequency = 1/Ts ‘tir. Ayrıca pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) olarak da isimlendirilir.

Nyquist teoremine göre en düşük sampling rate, sinyaldeki en yüksek frekansın iki katından büyük olmalı. Yani en yüksek frekans 4000Hz ise en az saniyede 8000 sample alınmalıdır.

Quantization

Sampling ile elde edilen değerlerin belli aralıklara indirgenmesidir. Örneğin sensörden aldığınız değer 1.213782739V veya 1.194320220V olabilir bu iki değerin 1.2V değerine indirgenmesi.

Quantization, in mathematics and digital signal processing, is the process of mapping input values from a large set (often a continuous set) to output values in a (countable) smaller set, often with a finite number of elements.

Quantization error

ENCODING

Delta Modulation (DM)


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